In one of the most turbulent periods of Chinese history, jade took its place at the center of culture. Part 2 of 2. By Frank Doonan
	< Han Dynasty plaque with bird, mythical animal, and cloud design. Photo courtesy Powals Antiques Inc.

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Jade began as the stone of the Chinese Stone Age, taking center stage in ritual, ceremony, and legend. Beginning around 1700 B.C., however, stone was replaced by bronze as the use of metals ushered in a new era in politics and culture.

Cultures - that is, loosely-affiliated groups with similar cultural characteristics - were replaced by kingdoms with a distinct political structure and a powerful central government. As kings went to war, conquered, and then were conquered themselves, jade became the stabilizing standard by which all social, economic, and political relationships were measured.

The repeated pattern of dynasties forming and breaking up begins with the Shang Dynasty. The dynasties in this period were only weak confederations, with the different kingdoms locked in power struggles and frequent wars to determine whose turn it was to rule China. Although each kingdom had its own distinct style of jade carving, it was the mutual influences of these kingdoms that produced the later, traditional standards for defining the gem.

Shang Dynasty (1700-1027 B.C.)

Head of a tribal chief or shaman from the Shang Dynasty, photo courtesy Tony Wilson.

The jade carving traditions that sprang out of the Late Stone Age were continued in the Shang Dynasty, especially the trend of using nephrite jade rather than local rocks and minerals for the most important ritual icons and power symbols.

There are indications that the people of the Shang Dynasty collected carvings from previous ages. Jade and jade-like carvings of past centuries are among the personal possessions found in graves and tombs. The older jade probably came from the looting of Stone Age graves, which may in turn have inspired extensive breaking and burning of jade in burial ceremonies to discourage further desecration of tombs. Another explanation for this ritual may be the traditional description of the death of great leaders, wise sages, and beautiful women as "jade shattered."

Gui-shaped pendant from the Shang Dynasty. Photo courtesy Powals Antiques Inc.

The artisans of the Shang Dynasty produced jade carvings of high quality, mostly traditional-style carvings used in ceremonies and funerary rituals. In addition, many people began to wear jade jewelry and other decorations in everyday life.

Some carvings of the Shang Kingdom were three-dimensional animal and human forms that do not appear to have a ceremonial purpose. Most of the animal and human carvings of the Yin period (1400-1027 B.C.) were primitive, but later the quality improved. Ritual carvings of Late Stone Age cultures, like the pig and dragon, developed in more variety and detail as the role of the dragon myth became firmly established in the culture.

Jade carving technology improved as carvers developed tools like the lathe in bronze to produce large numbers of detailed carvings. Despite the advances in technology, the standards of quality set by the jade carving clans of the Late Stone Age were never surpassed during the Shang and Zhou dynasties, and even declined in the later Qin and Han dynasties. Carving technology did not change until the arrival of western tools and abrasives in the late 19th century.

Neolithic jade kettle, photo courtesy Chicochai Antiques.

As jade increased in influence, the hunt began for new sources. The first documented use of nephrite jade from the Kunlun mountains of Xinjiang Province occurs during the Yin Period. The use of jade from China's far western frontier reflects the existence of a sophisticated system of trade that may have earlier roots. The Jade Road to the west set the foundation for the later development of what is called the Silk Road in the Han Dynasty.

Trade with the west - and the supply of jade - waxed and waned with the political stability of the dynasties and their relationships with the nomadic tribes and feudal states in the western regions of China. Beginning in this period, the quality and artistic development of jade carvings were greatly influenced by the amount and quality of jade supply from the west. Nephrite jade of Xinjiang Province progressively became the standard for defining jade culture in the Middle Kingdom, replacing the earlier mines at Suzhou and the lower-quality nephrite from Jiangsu Province.

Zhou Dynasty (1027-221 B.C.)

A Zhou Dynasty figure of a human with an animal head, photo courtesy Tony Wilson

The Zhou Dynasty was the first to unite most of China under a single government. It is considered the "shaping period" of Chinese culture, when many of the country's most fundamental traditions and philosophies were first developed and written down.

The quality of the jade carvings in the Zhou Dynasty was generally very good to excellent. Elaborate jewelry and animal carvings were created, with the best animal carvings reserved for ornaments and decorations for swords and belt buckles.

LEFT: A modified cong with a double-dancer motif from the Warring States period (late Zhou Dynasty), photo courtesy Powals Antiques Inc. RIGHT: Ornamental tube from the Zhou Dynasty, photo courtesy Powals Antiques Inc.

Masks, body suits, and body orifice plugs made from jade or jade-like stones were first used in the Zhou Dynasty and continued throughout the Han. It was believed that the body suits and orifice plugs protected the body from decay, evil spirits, and the loss of the life force, called qi.

Jade was used extensively in other ceremonies as well. The Liji - Rites of the Zhou Dynasty describes the hierarchy of nobles by the color of jade they were required to wear in the court and during ceremonies. The highest-ranking jade, reserved for the emperor himself, was a white jade plaque attached to a black silk band; the lowest-ranking jade was a "fine jade-like" plaque with a red-yellow band. "A gentleman," according to the Liji, "cannot take off his jade plaque without a special reason. The jade represents the virtues of a gentleman."

Confucius (551-479 B.C.) is credited with gathering the knowledge from different kingdoms and preserving it, including the standards for jade. He wrote: Jade's polish and brilliance represent the white of purity, its perfect compactness and extreme toughness represent the sureness of intelligence; its angles, which do not cut, although they seem sharp, represent justice; the pure and prolonged sound which it gives forth when one strikes it represents music. Its color represents loyalty; its interior flaws, always showing themselves through the translucency, call to mind sincerity; its [soft] iridescent brightness represents heaven . . .

Qin Dynasty (221-206 B.C.)

A Qin Dynasty commemorative plaque depicting the unification of the warring states which began the dynasty, photo courtesy Tony Wilson.

The Qin Kingdom is probably the most important kingdom in terms of the political and economic history of this early period.

The Qin, who controlled the road to the western jade mines, rose to power by uniting several warring factions under a single emperor. In an effort to promote unity, the emperor introduced standards for writing, weights and measures, and even philosophy, burning any books that were contrary to official beliefs. As a result, much of the learning from the previous dynasties was lost.

The jade carvings of the Qin Dynasty were mostly simple, austere, flat carvings with incised geometric patterns. The quality of the carvings was generally poor.

Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.)

When the oppressive Qin were overthrown, they were replaced with the Han Dynasty, which kept the organizational structure of the Qin but allowed more freedom of thought, including the return of Confucian principles.

Jade was generally available in large amounts during the Han period, and many jade carvings dating from this time have been found, but the quality of the carving was mostly poor to fair. The Han developed some unique carving styles, but the better jade carvings likely came from the descendants of the original jade carving clans.

Ceremonial carvings were still important, but their use and quality decreased. Stylistic adult forms replaced the fetal animals in burial, but the tradition of using pairs of pigs and dragons continued to be important. Elaborate suites made of small pieces of jade combined with orifice plugs were common in the tombs of the kings and emperors.

A Han Dynasty seal with four dragon heads and four phoenix heads, photo courtesy Powals Antiques Inc.

In the Han period and possibly earlier, regulations limiting who was allowed to wear and own jade began to be enforced, and the widespread wearing of jade in public by many people dropped. Jade was restricted to the noble classes.

It was also during the Han Dynasty that the first Chinese dictionary appeared, defining jade as "the beautiful stone with five virtues." The definition continues:

The appearance and feel is warm and moist, revealing loving kindness. Understanding the exterior of jade reveals the interior, which stands for justice. The sound of jade is melodious and travels far, like the ring of wisdom. Unyielding to the point of breaking speaks of bravery. Jade's clarity is without discord or hidden blemish, revealing pure motives.

Jade Culture Today
What happened to the jade culture that formed the foundation of the Middle Kingdom?

After the Han Dynasty, the quality of jade carving improved greatly. The general trend was that more and more carvings were produced for prized personal possessions and decorative items. The use of jade in ritual and funerary rites faded, although the ritual use of jade in the Imperial Court of China continued up until the end of the last dynasty in 1911.

The first jadeite from Myanmar appeared in the Han Dynasty, but it did not become commonly used in carvings until the late 18th century. Jadeite never was considered the "Stone of Heaven," in part because it failed one of the tests of true jade, the test of fire. When burned, nephrite jade takes on an aged appearance, while jadeite turns into a glassy slag. Rarely carved into ceremonial tools, jadeite was almost exclusively used for jewelry and decorative items.

Trinket or treasure box dating between 475 B.C. and 8 A.D., photo courtesy Tony Wilson.

The fall of the Qing Dynasty after the beginning of the 20th century ended the traditional role of jade in the Middle Kingdom. Humiliating defeats and the manipulation of China by foreign powers in the 19th and 20th centuries were blamed on the failure to modernize. That led to the destruction and desecration of a great deal of China's cultural heritage between 1949 and 1976.

As China opened up after 1976, the restoration of the cultural heritage of the Middle Kingdom began. But a strong profit motive entered the equation, as historical items became a commodity to be bought and sold.

Jade was no exception. The trend was to use the ancient definition of jade to justify a broad commercial definition of jade that included other stones. The narrower traditional and Western definitions of jade may be acknowledged in Chinese texts. But when referring to jade in the marketplace, quotations from ancient texts are often misused to represent common jade-like stones as jade.

As a result there is considerable confusion as to what may be called yu (jade) in China today. The word yu may be used to refer to four to six other, similar minerals and stones suitable for carving and be given to hundreds of different items in the marketplace. Historically, different regions did define their local stones as types of jade using the word yu, but by the Qin Dynasty, and possibly earlier, the distinction between nephrite jade and all other stones was well established. The art of distinguishing nephrite jade from other less desirable stones has been a distinct part of Chinese culture since before Confucius gathered the documents from around China to define jade.

Much of what has happened since the fall of the last emperor is related to the evolution of jade culture, the practices and lore that grew up around the Stone of Heaven. The understanding of jade offers hope for the healing of the separation between China's past, present, and future, and its relationship with the rest of the world. The Chinese saying "Turn weapons into peace with gifts of jade-silk [yubo]" - referring to the importance of jade gifts wrapped in silk as a part of ceremonial meetings of peace and friendship - is the same enduring message for the hope and promise for peace as that found in Isaiah 2:4 of the Bible: ". . . they shall beat their swords into plowshares into pruninghooks: Nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more."

Frank Doonan is a semi-retired soil scientist and environmental geologist. Originally from Rockville, Maryland, he now lives full-time in China, teaching and researching jade and jade culture.

Missed the first part of this article? Read it in the May/June issue of Colored Stone, which can be found online in the Archives.